Tomahawk Cruise Missile: The U.S. Navy’s Long-Range Strike Weapon
The BGM-109 Tomahawk is one of the most iconic and combat-proven cruise missiles in the U.S. military arsenal. Initially developed by General Dynamics and later produced by Raytheon, the Tomahawk has earned its place as the West's premier long-range, subsonic cruise missile. Designed for precision strikes over vast distances, it can be deployed from surface ships, submarines, and ground platforms. Its flexibility, range, and adaptability have made it the cornerstone of U.S. long-range strike capabilities.
Tomahawk Missile Specifications
| Specification | Details |
|---|---|
| Country of origin | United States |
| Entered service | 1983 |
| Missile length (with booster) | 6.25 m |
| Missile length (without booster) | 5.56 m |
| Missile diameter | 0.52 m |
| Wing span | 2.67 m |
| Missile weight (with booster) | 1,600 kg |
| Missile weight (without booster) | 1,300 kg |
| Warhead weight | 130 – 750 kg |
| Warhead type | Many including conventional and nuclear (see below) |
| Guidance system (land attack) | GPS, inertial navigation system, terrain-following radar |
| Guidance system (anti-ship) | Active radar homing |
| Range of fire | Up to 2,500 km |
| CEP (BGM-109A) | 80 m |
| CEP (other models) | 10 m |
Origins and Development Timeline
The origins of the Tomahawk date back to 1971, when the U.S. Navy sought a modern submarine-launched cruise missile (SLCM) to replace earlier systems like the Regulus. Two concepts emerged: one resembling a ballistic missile in size and another compact enough for torpedo tube launch. By mid-1972, the Navy chose the smaller option and issued a formal request for proposals.
By 1974, the Navy had selected two designs for a competitive fly-off: the ZBGM-109 from General Dynamics and the ZBGM-110 from LTV. After trials in 1976, the ZBGM-109 was declared the winner. Its scope was then expanded to include ship-based launches, and the acronym SLCM was retrofitted to mean Sea-Launched Cruise Missile. The missile was renamed YBGM-109A, and full development followed through the late 1970s and into the 1980s.
Joint Cruise Missile Project and Variants
In 1977, President Jimmy Carter directed the Navy and U.S. Air Force (USAF) to coordinate their missile efforts. This led to the Joint Cruise Missile Project (JCMP), standardizing components like the Williams F107 turbofan engine and Douglas AN/DPW-23 TERCOM guidance system across both branches.
However, the effort to adapt the Tomahawk into an air-launched missile proved problematic. Differences in guidance systems, airframe size, and mission requirements created engineering challenges, and most air-launched variants were abandoned by 1980. The USAF opted for the AGM-86 ALCM, and the Navy halted air-launched Tomahawk development, reverting the missile’s role exclusively to naval deployment.
Design and Physical Characteristics
The Tomahawk has a slender, tube-like fuselage, with pop-out wings and tail fins arranged in either a cruciform or triangular configuration, depending on the model. A solid rocket booster (Atlantic Research MK 106) propels the missile upon launch, after which the Williams F107 turbofan engine takes over for cruise flight.
- Length: ~5.56 m (18.25 ft)
- Diameter: ~0.52 m (20.4 in)
- Weight: ~1,440 kg (3,200 lb)
- Range: Up to 2,500 km (1,550 mi)
- Speed: Subsonic (~880 km/h or 550 mph)
The submarine-launched variants are encapsulated in a torpedo-like shell and ejected underwater before breaching the surface and transitioning to cruise flight.
Guidance Systems: TERCOM, DSMAC, and GPS
Early Tomahawk variants utilized TERCOM (Terrain Contour Matching) and DSMAC (Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation) for navigation. TERCOM uses terrain elevation data to navigate, while DSMAC compares real-time imagery with stored reference photos.
Later models incorporated Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) integration, improving mid-course correction and terminal accuracy.
The BGM-109B, the anti-ship variant, is unique in using active radar homing, making it a fire-and-forget weapon capable of autonomous target engagement without prior terrain mapping.
Warhead Configurations and Payload Versatility
Tomahawk missiles support a variety of warheads, depending on the variant:
- BGM-109A/G: Equipped with W80 or W84 nuclear warheads, now retired.
- BGM-109B/C: Carries a WDU-25/B HE-FRAG or WDU-36/B unitary warhead.
- BGM-109D: Contains 166 BLU-97/B Combined Effects Bomblets for anti-personnel and anti-materiel missions.
The Bullpup warhead (WDU-25/B) was particularly designed for soft targets, while the unitary WDU-36/B could be used against both hardened targets and ships.
Combat Performance and Operational Use
Operation Desert Storm (1991)
The Tomahawk made its combat debut during Operation Desert Storm, where 290 out of 307 missiles launched successfully struck various strategic targets in Iraq. Despite this success, post-conflict analysis showed that many missiles veered off course due to the flat terrain’s incompatibility with TERCOM guidance.
Subsequent Missions
- 1995 Operation Deliberate Force (13 missiles)
- 1998 Sudan/Afghanistan retaliatory strikes (75 missiles; several missed or were captured)
- Operation Desert Fox (330 missiles; high collateral damage reported)
- Operation Allied Force (1999) (218 missiles; accidental bombing of Chinese Embassy)
- Operation Enduring Freedom (2001) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (2003) (Over 800 missiles launched)
Despite its reputation for precision, the missile has frequently suffered from guidance errors, particularly in terrain-devoid or urban environments, occasionally leading to civilian casualties.
Modern Use and Future Outlook
In more recent years, Tomahawks have been used in Libya (2011) and Syria (2014), with improved results thanks to updated Block IV and Block V variants. These upgrades have added real-time targeting, re-routing, and data link capability, allowing the missile to respond dynamically during flight.
Current Operators
- United States Navy
- Royal Navy (United Kingdom)
Several NATO allies have conducted training exercises using Tomahawks but have not formally acquired them. Poland has expressed interest in recent years.
What’s Next for the Tomahawk?
While production has ceased, over 4,000 operational missiles remain, with U.S. inventory accounting for approximately 3,500. The U.S. Navy expects to maintain Tomahawk service until the 2030s, pending a successor’s development as part of the Next Generation Land Attack Weapon (NGLAW) initiative.
Comparison with Other Cruise Missiles
Kalibr (Russia)
The Russian Kalibr missile, often seen as Moscow’s counterpart to the Tomahawk, boasts similar range and guidance capabilities. However, Kalibr is designed for multiple roles, including anti-ship and land-attack missions. While capable, analysts suggest the Kalibr’s guidance systems are less refined than those of the Tomahawk, resulting in slightly lower accuracy and reliability.
Storm Shadow (UK/France)
The Storm Shadow, a joint UK-French development, is an air-launched stealth cruise missile. While it has a shorter range than the Tomahawk (around 560 km), it’s optimized for penetrating dense air defense systems. In contrast, the Tomahawk provides greater range and deployment flexibility from both naval ships and submarines, offering broader strategic application.
| Feature | Tomahawk | Kalibr | Storm Shadow |
|---|---|---|---|
| Range | Up to 2,500 km | 1,500–2,500 km | ~560 km |
| Launch Platform | Naval (sub/ship) | Naval, Air, Land | Air |
| Guidance | INS, GPS, TERCOM, DSMAC | GLONASS, INS | GPS, Terrain Mapping |
| Warhead | 450–1,000 lbs | 880 lbs | 990 lbs |
Notable Tomahawk Variants
| Variant | Description |
|---|---|
| ZBGM-109A/YBGM-109A | Early development and prototype missiles |
| BGM-109A TLAM-A | Land attack with W80 nuclear warhead |
| BGM-109B TASM | Anti-ship missile using active radar homing |
| BGM-109C TLAM-C | Land attack with unitary HE-FRAG warhead |
| BGM-109D TLAM-D | Disperses BLU-97 submunitions |
| BGM-109E (Block IV) | Upgraded with GPS, re-targeting, data link |
| BGM-109G Gryphon | Ground-launched cruise missile (GLCM), retired |
| AGM-109 Series | Air-launched variants, none entered service |
| RGM-109 / UGM-109 | Designations for ship- and submarine-launched versions |
Conclusion
The BGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missile is a testament to decades of technological evolution and operational refinement. With its versatile launch options, extended range, and continually upgraded guidance systems, it remains a key strategic asset. While future systems may replace it, the Tomahawk's legacy will endure as one of the most impactful and widely-used cruise missiles in modern warfare.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
What is the range of the Tomahawk cruise missile?
The Tomahawk can strike targets up to 2,500 km (1,550 miles) away, depending on the variant and payload.
What types of targets can the Tomahawk engage?
It can destroy land targets, ships, hardened bunkers, radar stations, and command centers.
Is the Tomahawk missile still in production?
No, production ended around 2016, but thousands remain in operational stockpiles.
What makes the Tomahawk missile unique?
Its low flight profile, long range, and precision guidance enable it to bypass defenses and strike strategic targets deep inland.
How accurate is the Tomahawk missile?
Modern Tomahawks with GPS and DSMAC can strike within meters of their target, though navigation issues have historically affected some missions.
Who uses the Tomahawk today?
Only the United States and United Kingdom operate the missile in active service.
Will there be a replacement for the Tomahawk?
The U.S. Navy is developing a Next-Generation Land Attack Weapon (NGLAW) to succeed the Tomahawk in the 2030s.
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